Cultivation of Agaricus bisporus is a large horticultural industry for many countries worldwide, where a single variety is almost grown exclusively. Mushroom virus X (MVX), a complex of multiple positive-sense single stranded RNA (ss(+)RNA) viruses, is a major pathogen of typical A. bisporus crops. MVX can manifest a variety of symptoms in crops and is highly infective and difficult to eradicate once established in host mycelium. Currently our knowledge regarding the molecular response of A. bisporus fruit bodies to MVX infection is limited. In order to study the response of different A. bisporus strains with different susceptibilities to MVX, we designed a model system to evaluate the in-vitro transmission of viruses in A. bisporus hyphae over a time-course, at two crucial phases in the crop cycle. The symptom expression of MVX in these varieties and the transcriptomic and proteomic response of fruit bodies to MVX-infection were examined. Transmission studies revealed the high potential of MVX to spread to uninfected mycelium yet not into the fruit bodies of certain strains in a crop. MVX affected colour and quality of multiple fruit bodies. Gene expression is significantly altered in all strains and between times of inoculation in the crop. Genes related to stress responses displayed differential expression. Proteomic responses revealed restriction of cellular signalling and vesicle transport in infected fruit bodies. This in-depth analysis examining many factors relevant to MVX infection in different A. bisporus strains, will provide key insights into host responses for this commercially important food crop.

The diversion of food wastes from landfill to sustainable disposal methods, such as composting and anaerobic digestion, has led to an increase in the soil amendment products that are now commercially available and which are derived from both of these processes. The use of such products as soil amendments during the production of ready-to-eat (RTE) crops is increasing worldwide. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of three well-recognised bacterial pathogens of importance to public health, namely Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella Senftenberg and Listeria monocytogenes, to become internalised in lettuce plants from peat growing media amended with contaminated food waste derived compost and anaerobic digestion liquid. The results demonstrated both S. Senftenberg and E. coli O157:H7 are capable of internalisation at lower inoculation levels, compared to previous studies. The internalisation was visualised through confocal microscopy. Internalisation of L. monocytogenes did not occur, however significant levels of L. monocytogenes contamination occurred on the non-sterilised plant surface. Assessing the internalisation potential for each of these pathogens, through the compost and anaerobic digestate matrices, allows for better risk assessment of the use of these products in a horticultural setting.

Cultivation of Agaricus bisporus is a large horticultural industry for many countries worldwide, where a single variety is almost grown exclusively. Mushroom virus X (MVX), a complex of multiple positive-sense single stranded RNA (ss(+)RNA) viruses, is a major pathogen of typical A. bisporus crops. MVX can manifest a variety of symptoms in crops and is highly infective and difficult to eradicate once established in host mycelium. Currently our knowledge regarding the molecular response of A. bisporus fruit bodies to MVX infection is limited. In order to study the response of different A. bisporus strains with different susceptibilities to MVX, we designed a model system to evaluate the in-vitro transmission of viruses in A. bisporus hyphae over a time-course, at two crucial phases in the crop cycle. The symptom expression of MVX in these varieties and the transcriptomic and proteomic response of fruit bodies to MVX-infection were examined. Transmission studies revealed the high potential of MVX to spread to uninfected mycelium yet not into the fruit bodies of certain strains in a crop. MVX affected colour and quality of multiple fruit bodies. Gene expression is significantly altered in all strains and between times of inoculation in the crop. Genes related to stress responses displayed differential expression. Proteomic responses revealed restriction of cellular signalling and vesicle transport in infected fruit bodies. This in-depth analysis examining many factors relevant to MVX infection in different A. bisporus strains, will provide key insights into host responses for this commercially important food crop.

Urban agriculture (UA), the growing of fruits and vegetables in urban and peri-urban areas, may improve food security and access, public health and dietary quality on both a broad and personal scale. However, there is little research on the relationship between UA and diet, and potential mediating factors are also unclear. This study aimed to investigate if proximity to and engagement with UA is associated with better diet quality, and what accounts for this relationship. UK-based adults (N = 583, 69% Female) completed measures of proximity to and engagement with UA, perceived access to fruits and vegetables, health and ethical food choice motivations, connection with nature, psychological distress and dietary quality in an online survey. Participants were recruited from UA-related groups and the general public. Proposed relationships were analysed using a structural equation model. Greater proximity to and engagement with UA was associated with greater perceived access to fruits and vegetables, more health-related food choice motivations, more ethical-related food choice, feeling more connected with nature, and, surprisingly greater psychological distress. Furthermore, proximity to and engagement with UA was indirectly associated with better diet quality via health-, and ethical-related, food choice motivations. While the direct pathway between proximity to and engagement with UA and diet quality was not significant, UA is associated with better diet quality, partly via healthier and ethical food choice motivations. Upscaling UA may have benefits for dietary quality via these factors, and more research is needed to test causal relationships and understand these complex interactions.

Green mould disease of mushroom, Agaricus bisporus,is caused by Trichodermaspecies and can result in substantial crop losses.Label free proteomic analysis of changes in the abundance of A. bisporusproteins following exposure to T. aggressivumsupernatantin vitroindicated increased abundance of proteins associated with an oxidative stress response (zinc ion binding (+6.6 fold); peroxidase activity (5.3-fold); carboxylic ester hydrolase (+2.4 fold); dipeptidase (+3.2 fold); [2Fe-2S] cluster assembly (+3.3 fold)). Proteins that decreased in relative abundance were associated with growth: structural constituent of ribosome, translation (-12 fold), deadenylation-dependent decapping of nuclear-transcribed mRNA (-3.4 fold), and small GTPase mediated signal transduction (-2.6 fold). In vivoanalysis revealed that 10-4 T. aggressivuminoculum decreased the mushroom yield by 29% to 56% and 10-3 T. aggressivuminoculum decreased the mushroom yield by 68% to 100%. Proteins that increased in abundance in A. bisporusin vivofollowing exposure to T. aggressivumindicated an oxidative stress response and included proteins with pyruvate kinase activity (+2.6 fold) and hydrolase activity (+2.1 fold)). The results indicate that exposure of A. bisporusmycelium to T. aggressivum in vitroand in vivoresulted in an oxidative stress response and reduction in growth.

Agaricus bisporus is an extensively cultivated edible mushroom. Demand for cultivation is continuously growing and difficulties associated with breeding programs now means strains are effectively considered monoculture. While commercial growing practices are highly efficient and tightly controlled, the over-use of a single strain has led to a variety of disease outbreaks from a range of pathogens including bacteria, fungi and viruses. To address this, the Agaricus Resource Program (ARP) was set up to collect wild isolates from diverse geographical locations through a bounty-driven scheme to create a repository of wild Agaricus germplasm. One of the strains collected, Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus ARP23, has been crossed extensively with white commercial varieties leading to the generation of a novel hybrid with a dark brown pileus commonly referred to as ‘Heirloom’. Heirloom has been successfully implemented into commercial mushroom cultivation. In this study the whole genome of Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus ARP23 was sequenced and assembled with Illumina and PacBio sequencing technology. The final genome was found to be 33.49 Mb in length and have significant levels of synteny to other sequenced Agaricus bisporus strains. Overall, 13,030 putative protein coding genes were located and annotated. Relative to the other A. bisporus genomes that are currently available, Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus ARP23 is the largest A. bisporus strain in terms of gene number and genetic content sequenced to date. Comparative genomic analysis shows that the A. bisporus mating loci in unifactorial and unsurprisingly highly conserved between strains. The lignocellulolytic gene content of all A. bisporus strains compared is also very similar. Our results show that the pangenome structure of A. bisporus is quite diverse with between 60–70% of the total protein coding genes per strain considered as being orthologous and syntenically conserved. These analyses and the genome sequence described herein are the starting point for more detailed molecular analyses into the growth and phenotypical responses of Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus ARP23 when challenged with economically important mycoviruses.

Seed physiology of 15 Eucalyptus species of interest for cut foliage plantations was unknown and therefore evaluated. The viability and vigour of seeds and germination potential of 15 Eucalyptus species was determined by using a tetrazolium (TZ) staining test, and the results were compared to a germination test. In a separate experiment, seeds of each lot were subjected to either 0 or 4-week cold stratification at 4 ± 1 °C to investigate their potential stratification requirement. After stratification, seeds were then allowed to germinate at 22 ± 1 °C with 16 h lighting per day for 36 days. Seed viability and vigour were checked by evaluating % root, cotyledon and first true leaves emergence, and the speed of emergence, in the germination test. The germination percentages varied with the species. Seed stratification with the interaction of seed species lots significantly affected both viability and vigour. The seed viability of the different species ranged from 9 to 100% and 2 to 100%, for the TZ test and germination test, respectively, with a high correlation (R2 = 0.89) between the two. Physiology tests revealed that cold stratification of seed was not required for the 15 species to maximise their germination potential and growth in Irish and British climate.

Spent mushroom substrate (SMS) is an organic manure that can be used with advantage in agriculture. Under European Union (EU) (Good Agricultural Practice for Protection of Waters) Regulations, SMS cannot be applied to land over the winter months and must be stored on concrete surfaces, either covered or uncovered, to prevent nutrient-rich runoff seeping into groundwater. Spent mushroom substrate at four storage facilities, two covered and two uncovered, was analysed for physical and chemical characteristics after storage for up to 12 mo. Significant differences (P<0.05) were identified for all parameters across the four sites, except for pH, but there were no consistent differences that correlated with uncovered or covered storage conditions. The content of nitrogen (N) and manganese (Mn) was significantly lower in uncovered SMS, while the content of iron (Fe) and copper (Cu) was significantly higher. The chemical nitrogen-phospous-potassium (NPK) fertiliser equivalent value of SMS, when applied at a rate of 10 t/ha, was between €105 and €191 per hectare. Nitrogen-phospous-potassium concentrations per kg wet weight were all higher in SMS that was stored under cover, meaning higher chemical fertiliser savings are possible. The high pH of stored SMS (7.8–8.1) means it could be used with good effect on acid soils instead of ground limestone. The low bulk density of SMS (0.545–0.593 g/cm3) makes it an ideal amendment to soils to improve soil structure and quality. There is some variability in the nutrient content of SMS from different sources, so it is advisable to get the material analysed when including in nutrient management plans.

First Report of Shot Hole disease on Cherry Laurel (Prunus laurocerasus) Caused by Micrococcus aloeverae in Ireland

Urban agriculture (UA), the growing of fruits and vegetables in urban and peri-urban areas, may improve food security and access, public health and dietary quality on both a broad and personal scale. However, there is little research on the relationship between UA and diet, and potential mediating factors are also unclear. This study aimed to investigate if proximity to and engagement with UA is associated with better diet quality, and what accounts for this relationship. UK-based adults (N = 583, 69% Female) completed measures of proximity to and engagement with UA, perceived access to fruits and vegetables, health and ethical food choice motivations, connection with nature, psychological distress and dietary quality in an online survey. Participants were recruited from UA-related groups and the general public. Proposed relationships were analysed using a structural equation model. Greater proximity to and engagement with UA was associated with greater perceived access to fruits and vegetables, more health-related food choice motivations, more ethical-related food choice, feeling more connected with nature, and, surprisingly greater psychological distress. Furthermore, proximity to and engagement with UA was indirectly associated with better diet quality via health-, and ethical-related, food choice motivations. While the direct pathway between proximity to and engagement with UA and diet quality was not significant, UA is associated with better diet quality, partly via healthier and ethical food choice motivations. Upscaling UA may have benefits for dietary quality via these factors, and more research is needed to test causal relationships and understand these complex interactions.